Nine out of 10 citizens express openness to cohabitation – as neighbours or married-in family members – with people of other ethnicities.
Key findings
On average across 33 countries, 41% of Africans feel more connected to their national than their ethnic identity, compared to just 14% who prioritise their ethnic over their national identity; 45% are equally attached to both. o Over the past decade, across 25 countries, attachment to national identity has decreased by 12 percentage points while preference for ethnic identity has gained 4 points. The share of citizens who value both identities equally has increased by 8 points. o Prioritisation of national identity declined in most surveyed countries, including huge drops in South Africa (-52 percentage points), Lesotho (-27 points), Tanzania (-23 points), Ghana (-22 points), Kenya (-20 points), and Sierra Leone (-20 points). Four in 10 Africans (41%) report that members of their ethnic group are “sometimes,” “often,” or “always” treated unfairly by their government because of their ethnicity. Across 25 countries, perceptions of ethnic discrimination have increased by 8 percentage points since 2016/2018. About one in five Africans (21%) say they trust people from other ethnic groups “a lot,” while 36% trust them “somewhat.” In contrast, nine out of 10 Africans have no objection to living next door to people from different ethnic backgrounds (90%) and are open to interethnic marriages within their own families (89%). And most (85%) indicate a sense of inclusion, saying that other citizens “think of me as a citizen just like them.” Interethnic trust and tolerance are weaker, and perceptions of unfair treatment more common, among people who feel more attached to their ethnic than their national identity.
In Africa, ethnic identity is more than just a personal affiliation – it plays a pivotal role in shaping social, economic, and political dynamics. But it is also fluid, and may be influenced by education, occupation, and other factors (Bannon, Miguel, & Posner, 2004) while also being subject to political influence or even manipulation (Eifert, Miguel, & Posner, 2007).
Ethnic affiliation is often viewed as a threat to national unity and stability. Ethnic divisions can lead to the unequal distribution of power and resources, leaving some groups marginalised and fuelling political tensions that can spiral into conflict (Peltier, 2024; Wilhelm Otieno, 2024). Ethnicity and ethnic allegiances can become intertwined with historical grievances and political exclusion (Posner, 2004), which may continue to limit economic opportunities and perpetuate cycles of poverty (Alesina, Michalopoulos, & Papaioannou, 2012).
But while it is often seen as a source of tension, ethnic identity can also foster cultural pride and a sense of community, particularly as African societies become increasingly diverse and interconnected. Ethnicity, in this sense, might not only separate but also unite, contributing to a sense of shared purpose (African Union, 2021). Ethnic diversity and ethnic identity might therefore be regarded as a resource for, rather than an impediment to, development (Guterres, 2021). Given this duality, how do Africans themselves perceive their ethnic identities and the importance of ethnicity in their social and political lives?
Recent data from Afrobarometer offer insights into these questions. Results from 33 countries surveyed during Round 9 (2021/2023) reveal that Africans are likely to prioritise their national identity over their ethnic one, or to feel allegiance to both equally; only a small minority put their ethnic identity first. There has, however, been a modest shift away from preference for national identity and toward ethnic identity (or “both”) over the past decade.
When we turn to questions of how Africans view people of other ethnicities, however, the findings seem almost contradictory. On the one hand, we find relatively low levels of trust in people from other ethnic groups – as well as people from other religions and others outside the networks of family and community – creating barriers to full social integration. And increasing numbers report that their ethnic group faces ethnically based discrimination at the hands of government.
At the same time, the findings reveal widespread openness toward not just integration and coexistence, but even toward cohabitation – as neighbours or married-in family members – with people of other ethnicities. These contradictions suggest that ethnic diversity can be both a challenge and an opportunity for fostering unity and inclusivity.
The results presented below show how Africans perceive and navigate their ethnic and national identities, and the extent to which ethnic identity influences social trust and experiences of discrimination.
Maakwe Cumanzala Maakwe Cumanzala is a Neubauer Family Economics and Public Policy PhD student at Tufts University.
Carolyn Logan Carolyn is the director of analysis and capacity building at Afrobarometer.
